Integration of Aristotles Four Causes and Ego Psychology Essay Example for Free

Integration of Aristotles Four Causes and Ego Psychology Essay Ego Psychology Theory is based on Freud’s structure of mind model of identity, ego, and superego elaborated in more detail. Individuals have different ego controlling between primitive drives and realities. Individuals always deal with identities, drives and egos. However, if one has good control with ego, they can express their desire, drives and morals in realistic and socially appropriate ways. If failed, one confronts difficulties such as conflict with inner self and loss of mature interpersonal relationship. However, throughout lifetime, individuals change their feelings and behaviors to better fit their needs or minimize their conflict between primitive drives and realities. The material cause for ego psychology is identity and ego. Individuals are born with primitive drives, sexual desires, and egos which enable to organize their identity, drives and synthesize judgment, defined as decisions toward another in feelings, or to be aware of drives that affects feelings in accord with reality. In other words, ego can give a right direction for or control identity drives, whether it is satisfied or not in light of reality. The formal cause of ego psychology is ego development which is follows by means of the individuals needs, e. g. , affiliation with others, learning, etc. Hartmann says that we must develop â€Å"autonomous ego-development† (Hartmann, 1958, p, 101). The ego must be understood in relation with the individuals needs and drives, traits, expectations, and values. According to Hartmann, peoples defense mechanism develop their ego. Hartmann pointed out that â€Å"the defense processes may simultaneously serve both the control of instinctual drive and adaptation to the external world. † (Hartmann, 1958, p. 51) The efficient cause is adaptation â€Å"reality mastering† and a reciprocated relationship between an individual and his or her environment. The outcome of successful adaptation implies â€Å"fitting together† (Hartmann 1958, p, 36). If individuals overcome their conflicts, they are lead to their functions which are more or less closely related to the perceive reality. Therefore, successful adaptation embeds an individual in an environment. Also, it solves conflict among individual needs, capacities, and their environments due to the complicated tendencies of defensive egos. In early stages the ego is focused on differentiating itself from others and on affirming its separate existence though expression of drives. Later, the individuals begin to learn rules of conduct to follow in order to avoid group criticism (Martin,1981). The impact of interpersonal and environmental factors is thought to be crucial to the evolution of mature ego functions during the lifelong developmental process. The final cause of ego psychology is to find better adaptation and sustain ego function with regard to individual needs to adapt to their environments, drives, traits, and expectations. Other manifestations of social functioning problems and self regulation and control of drives affect other peoples perceptions is central to the development of an individuals behaviors and are appropriate in certain circumstances. People, because of their inevitable and requisite relationship with the world, are subject to change their attitudes, behaviors, and even their egos in order to cope with the changes and demands of other people around them and in the group they belong in. References Irving M. Rosen. (1968) Ego psychology of the adult years.Journal of Religion and Health, Volume 7, Number 3 PDF (243. 6 KB) Retrieved May 2, 2008, from SpringerLink database. Hartmann, Heinz. (1958) Ego psychology and the problem of adaptation. New York, NY: International Universities Press. Martin A, James. (2000) Ego psychology notes. Retrieved Apr. 2, 2008, from http://www. brynmawr. edu/Acads/GSSW/jam/switr/991415. htm Martin, Grotjahn. (1981) The therapeutic group process in the light of developmental ego Psychology. Group, Volume 5. Retrieved May 2, 2008, from SpringerLink database.

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Jonathan Etra Professor Eric Blanchard International Politics 13 February 2014 Word Count: 1331 Shifting Paradigms: An Analysis of Conflict and Cooperation in International Politics When seeking to understand the central problems that actors face in international politics, there are no universal tools, including paradigms and levels of analysis, that unilaterally account for the global state of affairs. However, by utilizing these instruments, political scientists are able to analyze situations independently and account for context. Paradigms are statements of the underlying assumptions used by a school of analysis such as realism, liberalism and constructivism (Nye & Welch, 62). The models often explore levels of analysis, which include individual actors, states and the global system. Historically, when considering cooperation and conflict in the international arena, much emphasis has been placed on realist theory. However, it seems that a new age of technological innovation and rapid globalization has spawned new avenues for liberalism to triumph. This transition is best explained through the lens of constructivism. By exploring the varying applicability of t he paradigms presented, one gains a greater understanding of the ever-evolving international arena. First, it is important to consider the anarchic system of states, the current form of world politics. In the anarchical system, states are unboundedly independent and are neither obligated to, nor protected by international law (Doyle, 114). In what is often referred to as the Westphalian model, states are political entities that have territoriality and autonomy. Territoriality means that a state’s authority extends over a defined area. Autonomy infers that external act... ... However, the increasingly interdependent nature of the international system has substantially augmented international collaboration. While such cooperation cannot ensure peace, it certainly has made the cost of war much greater. Constructivism and liberalism, unlike the Hobbesian realist perspective, take mitigating institutions into account when analyzing world order. They reason that self-help theory does not dominate and contend that when a system is more social, laws, rules and norms play a greater role. Yet, there are still situations in which the channels of alleviation do not exist and the realist perspective still dominates. Ultimately, while no universal system of analysis exists, by reviewing conflict and cooperation through varying lenses, namely realism, liberalism and constructivism, one can gain a considerable understanding of international politics.

Counselling Skills Essay

Interviews require the use of skills – for example, careful listening, noting nonverbal cues, monitoring the progress of what a client is saying while participating and taking notes, and require careful planning and preparation. A counselling interview (taken from ICCS Diploma of Counselling Participants’ manual) is structured by a number of phases in the session. They are: * Phase 1- Arrival (5 mins) * Phase 2- Connecting (10 mins) * Phase 3- Exploring the client’s world (30 mins) * Phase 4- Taking action (10 mins) * Phase 5- Closure (5 mins) Communication techniques including counselling micro skills Good communication techniques are imperative to the counselling session. 1) The counsellor aims to get the client to talk freely and openly. Micro skills used: Attending behaviour, such as appropriate eye contact, attentive body language, and communicates genuineness. 2) The counsellor tries to clarify and gather information from the client Micro skills used: Active listening, reflection of content/ paraphrasing to clarify. Use open and closing questions, and summarising to gather more information. Use minimal prompts, encouragers and reflection of feeling. 3) The counsellor offers empathy and understanding to the client and builds rapport, relationship and trust. Micro skills used: Reflection of feeling, warmth, genuineness, respect and congruence. Communication barriers and resolution strategies A communication barrier is anything that prevents one from receiving and understanding the messages others use to convey their ideas, thoughts and information. These barriers may be related to the message, internal barriers related to thoughts and feelings, or external barriers. Internal barriers include: fatigue, disinterest, poor listening skills, past experiences with the client, home or work problems. (QCOSS, 2007) External barriers include: noise and other distractions, unpleasant environment, problems with technology or equipment. (QCOSS, 2007) Skilled listeners attempt to be objective by consciously trying to understand the speaker without letting their personal opinions influence the message of the speaker’s words. They try to understand what the client wants to communicate, not what they want to understand. Effective counsellors will use alternate resolution strategies to overcome barriers, such as interpreter services, communication boards, translating equipment, sign language, and referrals to other professionals if required. Aim of counselling interview The main aim of the counselling relationship is the view to Phase 4- Termination. The counselling interview is to empower the client into making clear decisions, expressing an understanding and non-judgemental observation whilst building a trust relationship, and to assist in goal setting if required. Observational techniques, including facial expressions, non- verbal behaviour, posture and silences. A study by Albert Mehrabian in 1971 provided some interesting information about the relative importance of verbal and non-verbal messages in determining the receiver’s impression of the sender’s emotions. On average, words contribute to 7% of total influence, while tone of voice and visual clues contributed 38% and 55% respectively. (Mehrabian. A, 1971) Gerard Egan defined the acronym SOLER as part of his â€Å"Skilled Helper† staged approach to counselling. It is a non-verbal listening process used in communication. The following was retrieved from Steven Lucas’ (2012) Counselling Central webpage: S: Sitting squarely says â€Å"I’m here with you, I’m available to you.† Turning your body away from another person while you talk to him or her can lessen your degree of contact with that person. If, for any reason, facing the person squarely is too threatening for them, then an angled position may be more helpful. O: Adopt an open posture. Crossed arms and/or crossed legs can be a sign of lessened involvement with or availability to others. An open posture says you are open to the client and what he or she has to say. It is non-defensive in nature. L: It is possible to lean in towards the client. It says, â€Å"I’m with you, I’m interested in you and what you have to say.† Leaning back can suggest the opposite. Remember not to lean too far forward, or this may be seen as placing a demand on the client. He or she may find it intimidating. E: Maintain good eye contact. It’s another way of saying, â€Å"I’m interested, I’m with you.† Remember this is not the same as staring. You will need to look away every so often, in order not to stare, but monitor the amount you look away. It could say something about your own level of comfort/discomfort. R: Be relaxed or natural. If you are fidgeting nervously it will distract the client. Being relaxed also tells the client that you are comfortable with using your body as a vehicle of personal contact and expression. It helps put the client at ease. Client’s style of absorbing information including visual, auditory and kinaesthetic A client’s preferred style of absorbing information guides the way they learn. It also changes the way they internally represent experiences, the way they recall information, and even the words they choose. The best approach for a counsellor is to address a variety of learning styles when in a counselling session. It is also helpful to encourage the client to understand their preferred learning style, be it visual, auditory and/or kinaesthetic. The following information on the three main learning styles has been taken from B.W. James (2009) tutoring website: VISUAL- * take numerous detailed notes * tend to sit in the front * are usually neat and clean * often close their eyes to visualize or remember something * find something to watch if they are bored * like to see what they are learning * benefit from illustrations and presentations that use colour * are attracted to written or spoken language rich in imagery * prefer stimuli to be isolated from auditory and kinaesthetic distraction * find passive surroundings ideal AUDITORY- * sit where they can hear but needn’t pay attention to what is happening in front * may not coordinate colours or clothes, but can explain why they are wearing what they are wearing and why * hum or talk to themselves or others when bored * acquire knowledge by reading aloud * remember by verbalizing lessons to themselves (if they don’t they have difficulty reading maps or diagrams or handling conceptual assignments like mathematics). KINESTHETIC- * need to be active and take frequent breaks * speak with their hands and with gestures * remember what was done, but have difficulty recalling what was said or seen * find reasons to tinker or move when bored * rely on what they can directly experience or perform * activities such as cooking, construction, engineering and art help them perceive and learn * enjoy field trips and tasks that involve manipulating materials * sit near the door or someplace else where they can easily get up and move around * are uncomfortable in classrooms where they lack opportunities for hands-on experience * communicate by touching and appreciate physically expressed encouragement, such as a pat on the back Cultural/ other differences working against development of client Consideration of the diversity of a client’s values, beliefs and cultural expectations is imperative for practising counsellors. Cultural differences working against the development of a client can be the client’s: * Religious and/or spiritual beliefs and values * Ethnicity and culture may have an impact on a client’s behaviour, eg different interpretations of body language * The client’s view of time and making and keeping strict appointment schedules * Cultural views of the social significance of age and gender Another factor towards inhibiting the development of a client is the counsellor’s lack of awareness of their own cultural background/experiences, attitudes, values, and biases that might influence their ability to assist clients from diverse cultural populations. It is essential that you correct any prejudices and biases you may have regarding different cultural groups. Self-evaluation, including biases, values and working from a client’s frame of reference Evaluating one’s performance as a counsellor is very important. Self-awareness of biases, values, attitudes and beliefs, and why we behave the way we do can assist us to differentiate between our own responses and that of our client. Some methods of self-evaluation used are: * Organisational feedback forms for clients * Internal online monkey surveys * External stakeholder surveys * Supervision As a counsellor, we can never work with a client from our own frame of reference. ‘Stepping in the shoes’ of the client from their viewpoint and seeing the client in the context of their culture, background and family helps us truly understand the client. Potential impacts of using identified communication skills and techniques in a range of counselling contexts Potential impacts of using identified communication skills in a range of counselling contexts can be rewarding and fruitful for both the client and counsellor. Communication techniques, such as challenging and confronting are not yet my forte, and I struggle with how I may apply it, but understand the impact of its purpose and usefulness. Building a rapport and trust, using micro skills, showing empathy, reflection of content and feeling, and working through communication barriers, impacts the client/counsellor relationship in a positive way. It is a privilege to share the client’s journey while they are in our lives.

The Prairie Schooner, Americas Classic Covered Wagon

The prairie schooner was the classic covered wagon that carried settlers westward across the North American plains. The nickname came from the typical white cloth cover on the wagon, which, from a distance, made it resemble the white cloth of a ships sails. Prairie Schooner The prairie schooner is often confused with the Conestoga wagon, but they are actually two very different types of wagons. Both were horse-drawn, of course, but the Conestoga wagon was much heavier and was first used by farmers in Pennsylvania to haul crops to market. The Conestoga wagon was often pulled by teams of up to six horses. Such wagons required reasonably good roads, such as the National Road, and were simply not practical for moving westward across the plains. The prairie schooner was a lighter wagon designed to travel great distances on rough prairie trails. And the prairie schooner  could usually be pulled by a single team of horses, or sometimes even one horse. As finding food and water for animals could present a serious problem while traveling, there was an advantage to using light wagons that required fewer horses. Depending on the circumstances, prairie schooners would also be pulled by oxen or mules. How They Were Used Adapted from light farm wagons, prairie schooners generally had a canvas cover, or bonnet, supported on wooden arches. The cover provided some protection from sun and rain. The cloth cover, which was typically supported on bows of wood (or occasionally iron) could be coated with various materials to make it waterproof. The prairie schooner would typically be packed very carefully, with heavy pieces of furniture, or crates of supplies, placed low in the wagon box to keep the wagon from tipping on rough trails. With the possessions of a typical family stowed aboard the wagon, there generally wasnt much room to ride inside. The ride was often pretty rough, as the suspension was minimal. So many emigrants heading westward would simply walk alongside the wagon, with only children or the elderly riding inside. When stopped for the night, families tended to sleep under the stars. In rainy weather, families would seek to stay dry by huddling under the wagon, rather than inside it. Groups of prairie schooners often traveled together in the classic wagon trains along such routes as the Oregon Trail. When the railroads expanded throughout the American West in the late 1800s there was no longer a need to travel great distances by prairie schooner. The classic covered wagons fell out of use but became an enduring symbol of the westward migration.